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A key to the understanding of the negative aspects of stress is the concept of milieu interieur (the internal environment of the body), which was first advanced by the great French physiologist Claude Bernard.

In this concept, he described the principles of dynamic equilibrium. In dynamic equilibrium, constancy, a steady state (situation) in the internal bodily environment, is essential to survival.

Therefore, external changes in the environment or external forces that change the internal balance must be reacted to and compensated for if the organism is to survive. Examples of such external forces include temperature, oxygen concentration in the air, the expenditure of energy, and the presence of predators.

In addition, diseases were also stressors that threatened the constancy of the milieu interieur.

The great neurologist Walter Cannon coined the term homeostasis to further define the dynamic equilibrium that Bernard had described. He also was the first to recognize that stressors could be emotional as well as physical. Through his experiments, he demonstrated the "fight or flight" response that man and other animals share when threatened.

Further, Cannon traced these reactions to the release of powerful neurotransmitters from a part of the adrenal gland, the medulla.

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Stress is simply a fact of nature—forces from the outside world affecting the individual. The individual responds to stress in ways that affect the individual as well as their environment.

Hence, all living creatures are in a constant interchange with their surroundings (the ecosystem), both physically and behaviorally. This interplay of forces, or energy, is of course present in the relationships between all matter in the universe, whether it is living (animate) or not living (inanimate).

However, there are critical differences in how different living creatures relate to their environment. These differences have far-reaching consequences for survival. Because of the overabundance of stress in our modern lives, we usually think of stress as a negative experience, but from a biological point of view, stress can be a neutral, negative, or positive experience.

In general, stress is related to both external and internal factors. External factors include the physical environment, including your job, your relationships with others, your home, and all the situations, challenges, difficulties, and expectations you're confronted with on a daily basis.

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Depressive disorders come in different forms, just as do other illnesses, such as heart disease and diabetes.

Three of the most common types of depressive disorders are discussed below. However, remember that within each of these types, there are variations in the number, timing, severity, and persistence of symptoms.



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Depressive disorders have been with mankind since the beginning of recorded history. In the Bible, King David, as well as Job, suffered from this affliction. Hippocrates referred to depression as melancholia, which literally means black bile.

Black bile, along with blood, phlegm, and yellow bile were the four humors (fluids) that described the basic medical physiology theory of that time.

Depression, also referred to as clinical depression, has been portrayed in literature and the arts for hundreds of years, but what do we mean today when we refer to a depressive disorder?

In the 19th century, depression was seen as an inherited weakness of temperament. In the first half of the 20th century, Freud linked the development of depression to guilt and conflict.

John Cheever, the author and a modern sufferer of depressive disorder, wrote of conflict and experiences with his parents as influencing his development of depression.

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The tonsils are red, oval clumps of tissue located at the back and to the sides of the throat. This location allows the tonsils to intercept germs as they enter the body through the nose and throat.

They contain infection-fighting cells and antibodies (infection-fighting proteins in the body) that stop the spread of the germs further into the body.

When the tonsils become red, sore, and swollen, this inflammation is called tonsillitis. This is not a specific term, as there are many causes of inflammation of the tonsils. Tonsillitis is a common cause of sore throat.

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Sore throat may have many causes. The most common causes of sore throat are infections of the throat and the surrounding structures.

Any inflammation or infection of the pharynx, tonsils, esophagus (the food pipe), or larynx (the top opening part of the windpipe) may cause sore throat.



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While many people use the terms sore throat, tonsillitis, and strep throat interchangeably, there are significant clinical differences between these conditions. Understanding the differences can give patients a better idea of how and when to be concerned and when to seek advice from a physician.

Strep throat is only one of many possible causes of throat infection and sore throat. While strep throat is most common in children and adolescents, it can affect people of all ages.



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While many people use the terms sore throat, tonsillitis, and strep throat interchangeably, there are significant clinical differences between these conditions. Understanding the differences can give patients a better idea of how and when to be concerned and when to seek advice from a physician.

Strep throat is only one of many possible causes of throat infection and sore throat. While strep throat is most common in children and adolescents, it can affect people of all ages.



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